Louis Pasteur was a French chemist who laid the foundations of modern microbiology. He also revolutionized the life sciences with his radical methods of study and experimentation. He is credited with numerous discoveries and the development of processes such as pasteurization which is widely used for sterilization. However, he is best remembered for his cure of rabies, a dreaded disease which until then meant certain death.

Early Life and Career

Louis Pasteur was born into a poor family in the town of Dole, France on December 27, 1822. His father was a tanner. His early days were spent in the town of Arbois where he attended school. Though he did not excel in school, the headmaster spotted Pasteur’s potential and persuaded his father to send him to Paris for further studies.

Pasteur enrolled in the Ecole Normale Superiere in Paris. He obtained his doctorate in 1847 and became an assistant to a professor. Pasteur’s first brush with fame came when he was only 26 years old when he made a revolutionary discovery on the polarization of light by tartaric acid, an acid found in wine. Pasteur found that the crystals of tartaric acid rotate light in two different directions because the crystals are present in two forms which were mirror images of each other. His findings drew acclaim amongst his peers.

His pioneering work on crystallography was lauded and he was elevated to the post of Professor at the college of Strasbourg. From there he went on to hold many distinguished academic positions in the reputed universities of the time.

He returned in 1856 to his alma mater, the Ecole Normale Superieure as Administrator and Director of Scientific Studies. He later went on to head the Science Faculty at the University of Lille. In 1867, he founded a laboratory for the study of microbes, which came to be known as the Pasteur Institute. It was here that he made the most famous and influential of his discoveries, the cure for rabies – a deadly disease which until then was incurable.

Pasteur’s Discoveries

Pasteur is remembered for first establishing the connection between germs and disease. He sought to apply all his scientific discoveries and ideas towards practical purposes. In the 1860s, the French silk industry was struck with a devastating epidemic. A mysterious disease was destroying the silkworms. The infected worms died before spinning the cocoons. The eggs which were infected did not hatch. In time, almost all the stock of silkworms was infected. The French silk industry was in danger of being wiped out. Alarmed, the French Government asked Pasteur to study the problem.

By observing the infected silk worms under a microscope, Pasteur discovered that disease was caused by bacteria which spread through contact between healthy and infected silk worms. He worked with the silk industry and developed a method to isolate infected silk worms. This halted the spread of the disease. The destroyed stock of silk worms was repopulated with healthy silk worms and in due course the industry recovered.

Pasteur soon became a household name in France. More importantly, this incident helped Pasteur focus and develop the ‘germ theory’ of disease.

The next object of Pasteur’s study was the anthrax epidemic, which was threatening the livestock in France. Pasteur managed to isolate the anthrax microbe and weakened it by heating. He then injected the weakened form of the virus into healthy animals. This helped the animals develop resistance to the real anthrax microbe. He had developed a vaccine against the disease. He applied the same method against fowl cholera, a disease that affected poultry birds.

Another process in germ control to which Pasteur has lent his name is Pasteurization — a method of preservation that is widely used in the dairy industry. Pasteur discovered that heating a liquid such as wine, milk, etc to high temperatures for a short period of time kills the microbes inside and increases the shelf life of the products.

Pasteur and Rabies

As remarkable as Pasteur’s other discoveries are, the crowning glory of his achievements was his development of a cure for rabies. Rabies is caused by a virus. The virus passes from infected animals to humans chiefly by means of bites. Most of the cases of rabies are transmitted from dogs to man. Once the individual is infected, the virus spreads and attacks the nervous system. The disease is 100% fatal if left untreated.

Pasteur sought to use the technique used in vaccination in his fight against the deadly disease. He first obtained spinal cords from animals which had died of rabies. Next, he dried them. He then extracted the virus from the spinal cords and infected healthy rabbits with the disease. Studying the tissues of the infected rabbits, he was able to develop a cure for rabies. The cure was first tested on a young boy, Joseph Meister who had bitten by a rabid dog. Meister recovered without developing any of the symptoms of rabies.

The incident was a milestone in the history of medicine. Pasteur achieved international fame and renown.

Death and Legacy

Pasteur died in 1895 from complications caused by a stroke. His remains are interred in a crypt at the Pasteur Institute

The Pasteur Institute, which he founded in 1887, is involved in the study of microbiology and in the preparation of vaccines. Today, it has research centers around the world. These centers focus on addressing medical problems in various parts of the world.

Over the course of his lifetime, Pasteur made contributions to diverse fields such as biology, chemistry and physics. He is hailed as a benefactor to humanity for his work on rabies. The methods he used for experimentation and analysis are as famous as his discoveries. He advocated simple and systematic experimentation to come to conclusions.

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Keeping an aquarium can be a truly enjoyable and rewarding experience. An aquarium adds beauty to the home and watching fishes swim gracefully can be extremely relaxing. Besides, fish are relatively to maintain. Setting your own home aquarium can be fun and adventurous.

To begin with, locate a place where you would like to place your aquarium. The ideal place would be one without direct sunlight. Ensure that you choose the place from where the aquarium can be seen clearly. At the same time, it is essential that it is in a place where you do not need to go often, so that the aquarium does not become a hindrance to movement within the room.

Choosing the tank
Tanks come in various sizes and shapes. You would need to decide on the size you would want. While choosing the size of the tank you need to take into account factors such as the size of the room you want to keep you tank in, your budget, the number of fish you want to keep. Large tanks would need more maintenance. It is recommended to start with smaller tanks.

Setting up the tank

The tank can be placed on a table or a stool. Place a sheet of Styrofoam or thermocole on the table and put the tank upon it. This is essential as the tank can develop cracks if the surface of the table is not uniformly smooth, i.e. if it contains high spots. The soft material helps even out the surface.

Once the tank if placed securely, fill the tank up to 2 inches with pebbles or stones. You need to wash the stones with water before putting them in. Fill the tank with water. Ensure that only soft water is used.

Landscaping the aquarium:
Now that you have filled the tank with water, it is time to put in the plants and the other ornamental items inside. Landscaping your aquarium in a tasteful manner increases its visual appeal. You can add live plants such as valisneria, Lace plants, etc. You can also add artificial plants. You can add small rocks to mimic a marine environment and toys. Take care that you do not let the ornamental items distract attention from the fish. They must complement the beauty of the fish. You can add a white light on the roof of the aquarium. Lights should be switched on during the day to enable the natural plants to grow. They must be switched off at night to permit the fish to sleep.

Buying fish

You can buy fish from the local aquarist. There are a number of fresh water fish species for the beginner to choose from. Fish such as Guppies, platys, mollies are ideal for the beginner. These fish are easy to care for, are not aggressive and can reproduce easily. The fish are usually packed in plastic bags. Once you have brought the fish home. Put the bags inside the aquarium and allow them to float on the surface for about 15 minutes. This is essential to equalize the temperature of the water inside the bags and the aquarium.
The number of fish that can be kept in the tank depends on the size of the tank and the size of the fish. As a rule of thumb, there should be one and half liters of water for every 1 cm of fish.

Caring for your fish
Fish are easy to care for. Remember to feed you fish once or twice everyday. Watch the fish for a few minutes and remove uneaten food as they tend to cloud the water.
You may have to scrub the walls with a scrubber every two or three weeks to remove the algae which may grow on the glass. The fish water needs to be changed periodically. . Remove a fourth of the water every two weeks and replace it with fresh water. You may have to change all the water every four months.

Having an aquarium is a delightful experience which freshens the mind. The aquarium is also believed to have therapeutic value by soothing the senses and reducing tension and blood pressure. A well designed aquarium greatly adds to the beauty of your home

image courtesy : http://www.charterhouse-aquatics.co.uk



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To many the very mention of Christmas brings up images of a jolly-faced Santa Claus. Santa Claus is an integral part of Christmas festivities around the Globe. The happy legend of Santa flying around the world in his sleigh drawn by reindeer to the homes of little children and stuffing their stockings with the gifts they have longed for, brings smiles and joy the world over.

When Santa has finished with dispensing his goodies to the world’s children, where does he go back to? Where does he live? Well, according to the people of Finland, Santa lives in the northern part of their country, known as Lapland. He lives in a place called Korvatunturi. It is said that the route to his home is a secret he closely guards and known to only a few elves and his faithful reindeer.

The word Korvatunturi means Ear-Mountain, because the mountain there resembles a ear. Santa is believed to use those ears to listen to the wishes of Children. You would certainly need huge ears to listen to the wishes of all the world’s children at the same time.

Santa gets about 600000 mails from his little friends around the world. The legend of Santa Clause also draws hordes of tourists during the Christmas season.

Korvatunturi has facilities for a lot of activities such as fishing, water rafting, sightseeing the beautiful Arctic scenery and snow-mobile safaris. Santa sure knows how to keep his guests entertained.

Related links: http://www.santaclaus.fi/
http://www.kidzworld.com/


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Macramé is a craft that involves preparation of textiles using knots. Materials such as cotton, hemp and leather can be made into beautiful works of art by this craft-form. The materials are made into knots, usually the square knot. The knots are linked with each other to produce intricate geometric or floral patterns.

Many decorative items such as beads, glasswork or even jewellery can be incorporated into Macramé.

The word Macramé is believed to be derived from the Arabic word, “migramah” which can be translated as a towel with stripes or a veil with intricate embroidery.

Arab weavers first developed the practice of knotting the excess and loose threads at the ends of towels, bed sheets into intricate designs. This practice of knotting soon developed into an exquisite form of decorating textiles. When the Moors conquered Spain, they introduced this art into Europe. The craft traveled quickly across continental Europe and into England. In the 18th and 19th centuries, macramé was an integral part of decorating any European home. Tablecloths, draperies, sheets would all adorned with these knotted patterns

The craft was also an important and useful pastime for sailors across the long and dull voyages. Sailors would spend their time knotting decorative works which could be sold at the next port.

Macrame is easy to start with. You would need some material such as twine or cords for the knots, a knotting boards and some pins.

Following are some of the websites that contain information on getting started with this beautiful craft form.

http://www.elainecraft.com/

http://www.craftsitedirectory.com/macrame/



images courtesy: http://www.bwoodantique.com/
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Nearly 500 years before Christopher Columbus set foot on the new world, an adventurous and pioneering Norseman landed on the shores of North America and established the first European settlement in the New World.

Leif Ericsson, the pioneering adventurer and explorer of the Vikings was born in the year 970 AD in Iceland. His father was Eric the Red, the famous Norse explorer credited with the discovery of Greenland. Little is known about Leif Ericsson’s early life except that he was born in Iceland. Adventuresome by nature, Leif was an avid voyager who traveled to nearby lands. During one such visit to Norway, Ericsson met King Olav Tryggvasson and learned about the Christian faith. Soon, he was baptized along with his followers and returned to Greenland. Passionate about his new faith, he explained his newfound beliefs to his mother who soon followed her son and was baptized.

It was during his stay in Greenland that Leif was drawn to something he had heard from another Viking Explorer, Bjarni Herjólfsson. Bjarni had told him of how on one of his voyages to Greenland he had been driven off course and had spotted lands further to the west. The young Leif Ericsson was greatly fascinated by this adventurous tale. He wanted to set sail in search of those unknown lands

He quickly got together a crew of about 35, obtained Bjarni’s ship and asked for his father to come along with him and take charge of the voyage. Erik, though, refused saying that he was too old. Leif, however, managed to persuade his father to join the voyage. A reluctant Erik agreed. However, on the way to the dock a freak accident occurred which made Erik change his mind. Erik had fallen from his horse on the way to the dock. Interpreting the accident as an inauspicious omen, Erik refused to join the expedition. An unhappy Leif was forced to lead the exploration on his own. The year was 1000 AD

Navigating using the sun during the day and sightings of the stars at night, as was the Viking method, Eriksson sailed for many days. He finally spotted land towards the west. Leif landed on the shore and found the land to be barren. He named it Helluland after the many flat stones he found there. The island is known as Baffin Island today.

Setting sail again, he sailed further and soon came across land. This land, though, was forested due to which Leif called it Markland meaning “land covered with wood”. Today, we know this land as Labrador.

Leif, however, did not stay there for long. He sailed further south and couple of days later sighted land again. The land he saw appeared to be covered with grass and with a shallow bay. He found the land to be idyllic, with streams containing salmon and thick grassy meadows. He found the land suited for settlement with winter fast approaching. Soon, the expedition set up camp and began exploring the island. The found the land containing grape vines bountifully laden with grapes and named it Vinland, modern New Found land.

Grapes proved to be a very lucrative find as there were not grapes in Greenland. Leif returned to his homeland with his ship loaded with grapes. In the years to follows, other Vikings followed Leif and established settlements. However, these settlements were abandoned shortly after violent encounters with the native Thule whom the Vikings called skraelings.

The incredible and heroic story of Leif Eriksson is mentioned in the Greenlanders Saga - a historical narrative of events in Norse society. In 2000, the 1000th anniversary of the landing of Leif Eriksson on the North American Continent was celebrated. Read More

Three Men in a Boat is a light-hearted novel narrating an interesting series of incidents involving the author and his two friends. Written by the noted writer and novelist, Jerome K Jerome, the novel has its central story based on a journey in a boat on the River Thames in England, hence the title. Interspersed with the central narrative are interesting anecdotes, fanciful observations and a mild parody of the conservatism of 19th century British society.

Three friends tired of the mundane routine of life decide on a boat trip along the Thames to reinvigorate them. The novel revolves around the trip and the often humorous discussions of the three about the incidents of everyday life and their exchanging anecdotes with each other. It is a fairly accurate snapshot of British society at the end of the 19th century.

The full title of the novel is “Three men in a boat (To say nothing of the dog)”. The dog being Montmorency, Jerome’s pet fox terrier. The jokes and humor are timeless nearly a century later and appeal to readers even today. The carefree nature of the author and his friends as they focus on the lighter side of his life is also a reason for its timeless appeal.

Jerome Klapka Jerome was born in May 2, 1959 to Jerome C Jerome, a parson and a non-conformist preacher. He spent his early years in relative poverty. Growing up, he tried his skills at acting with little success. He then tried his hand at writing articles and short plays. The novel "Three men in a boat" was published in 1889 about a fictitious outing in a boat with two of his friends. He died in 1927.

The book though did not find easy acceptance amongst the intellectuals of the time who looked with disdain at its excessively casual approach. How it struck a strong chord with the common public who liked its humorous and non-sentimental narrative and the witty anecdotes. The book was an instant success and is still in print.

Three men in a boat is one of the books which are meant for light-hearted reading and help take life a bit more casual. In 2003, the book was ranked #33 amongst the 100 greatest novels of all time by the British newspaper, The Guardian.

Download the novel at

http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/308 Read More

Rafflesia is the largest flower in the natural world. The flower which reaches a diameter of nearly 1 meter can weigh 11 kgs. It is found in the forests of South East Asia in Sumatra, Borneo and Malaysia. Destruction of Habitat and illegal harvesting of this rare plant have greatly endangered this fascinating plant species

Rafflesia is a parasite i.e. it lives on other plants. The plant lives on the Tetrastigma vine.

The Rafflesia plant, though, does not have any identifiable plant features such as leaves, stem and roots. Besides, unlike ordinary plants, it does not contain chlorophyll, the pigment necessary for photosynthesis. Rafflesia grows on its hosts. The flower originates in a bud which emerges from the host plant.

The Rafflesia flower emits a foul smell that resembles rotting flesh. For this reason, it is also known as the corpse flower. The pungent smell attracts flies which feed on dead flesh. These insects pollinate the flowers.

Rafflesia has become a big driver for eco-tourism in South East Asia as hordes of tourists visit to look at this wonder of nature. Efforts are on to conserve this rare flower and preserve its environment.


Useful links : http://rafflesia-in-bloom.blogspot.com/
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